Vaccination Programmes: Epidemiology, Monitoring, Evaluation

Buying Tramadol Online Cheap Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Table of Contents Acronyms and Abbreviations List of Boxes Preface Acknowledgements Introduction Part I Background Chapter 1 Vaccines 1.1 A Brief History of Vaccines 1.2 Vaccine Antigens, Platforms and Excipients 1.2.1 Vaccine Antigens 1.2.2 Vaccine Platforms 1.2.3 Adjuvants 1.2.4 Other Vaccine Excipients 1.3 Vaccine Potency, Stability, Immunogenicity and Safety 1.4 Routes of Administration of Vaccines 1.5 Vaccine Trials and Licensure of Vaccines 1.6 Vaccine Manufacturing Summary References Chapter 2 How Vaccines Work: Immune Responses and Vaccine Failure 2.1 The Immune System 2.2 The Humoral Immune Response: Antibodies 2.3 Cell-Mediated Immunity 2.4 Systemic and Mucosal Immunity 2.5 Implications of Mucosal and Systemic Immunity to Prevent Infection and Infectiousness 2.6 Persistence of Immunity 2.7 Determinants of the Immune Response to Vaccination and Its Persistence 2.8 Assessing the Immune Response to Vaccination 2.9 Vaccine Failure Summary References Chapter 3 Vaccination Programmes: Aims and Strategies 3.1 History of Vaccination Programmes 3.2 Goals, Aims and Targets of Vaccination Programmes 3.3 Vaccination Programme Strategies: Universal Or Selective Vaccination 3.4 Delivery of Universal Vaccination Programmes: Routine, Supplemental and Ring Vaccination 3.5 Vaccination Schedules 3.6 Vaccine Policy 3.7 Monitoring and Evaluation of Vaccination Programmes 3.8 Modifying Vaccination Programmes Summary References Chapter 4 Dynamics of Vaccine-Preventable Infectious Diseases 4.1 Contact, Transmission, Herd Immunity and Epidemic Cycles 4.2 Reproduction Numbers and the Critical Immunisation Threshold 4.3 Estimating R0 and the Critical Immunisation Threshold Pc in Homogeneously Mixing Populations 4.4 Heterogeneity 4.5 Infectious Disease Models Summary References Chapter 5 Impact of Mass Vaccination Programmes 5.1 Reductions in the Burden of Disease 5.2 Herd Immunity and Elimination of Endemic Transmission 5.3 Delayed Impacts: Changing Patterns of Susceptibility 5.4 Epidemiological Shifts: Age at Infection and Inter-Epidemic Period 5.5 Ecological Shifts: Pathogen Adaptation and Serotype Replacement 5.6 Wider Public Health Impacts of Vaccination Programmes 5.7 Off-Target Impacts of Vaccination Programmes Summary References Chapter 6 Vaccination: A Societal Perspective 6.1 Vaccination Programmes in Society 6.2 The Vulnerabilities of Vaccination Programmes 6.3 Vaccine Hesitancy 6.4 Communicating Scientific Evidence On Vaccination Summary References Part II Field Tools for Monitoring Vaccination Programmes Chapter 7 Monitoring Vaccine Coverage and Attitudes Towards Vaccination 7.1 Defining Vaccine Coverage 7.2 Methods for Monitoring Vaccine Coverage 7.2.1 Administrative Methods 7.2.2 Vaccine Coverage Surveys 7.2.3 Vaccine Registers 7.2.4 Innovative Approaches to Assessing Vaccine Coverage 7.3 Interpretation of Vaccine Coverage Data and Indicators 7.4 Accessing Coverage Data 7.5 Monitoring Attitudes Towards Vaccination Summary References Chapter 8 Surveillance of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases and Pathogens 8.1 Surveillance of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases 8.1.1 Sources of Data 8.1.1.1 Disease Notification 8.1.1.2 Laboratory Surveillance 8.1.1.3 Death Registration and Verbal Autopsy 8.1.1.4 Sentinel Surveillance and Clinical Surveillance Schemes 8.1.1.5 Routinely Recorded Healthcare Data 8.1.1.6 Citizen Science 8.1.2 Biases in Surveillance of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases: the Surveillance Pyramid 8.1.3 Descriptive Analyses of Vaccine-Preventable Disease Surveillance Data 8.2 Surveillance of Vaccine-Preventable Pathogens 8.3 Surveillance in the Context of Elimination and Eradication Summary References Chapter 9 Serological Surveillance 9.1 Seroprevalence and Serological Surveys 9.2 Serological Surveillance to Monitor Vaccination Programmes 9.3 Immunological Correlates of Protection 9.4 Design and Analysis of Serological Surveys 9.4.1 Sampling for Serological Surveys 9.4.2 Statistical Considerations Relating to the Use of Assays for Serological Surveys 9.4.3 Descriptive Analyses of Seroepidemiological Data 9.4.4 Mixture Modelling of Antibody Concentrations 9.4.5 Further Analyses of Serological Survey Data Summary References Chapter10 Assessing and Monitoring Impact 10.1 Population Impacts 10.2 Contemporaneous Comparisons 10.3 Before-And-After Comparisons 10.4 Interrupted Time-Series Methods 10.5 Regression Discontinuity Designs 10.6 Monitoring Elimination Summary References Chapter 11 Outbreak Investigation of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases 11.1 The Three Principal Causes of Vaccine-Preventable Disease Outbreaks 11.2 Outbreaks Due to Failure to Vaccinate 11.3 Outbreaks Due to Vaccine Failure 11.4 Outbreaks in Birth Cohorts Having Missed Infection and Vaccination 11.5 Aims of Vaccine-Preventable Disease Outbreak Investigations 11.6 Steps in the Investigation of Outbreaks of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases 11.6.1 Step 1: Establish the Existence of an Outbreak 11.6.2 Step 2: Identify the Pathogen Causing the Outbreak 11.6.3 Step 3: Agree Upon a Case Definition 11.6.4 Step 4: Find and Investigate Cases 11.6.5 Step 5: Undertake a Descriptive Analysis of Cases 11.6.6 Step 6: Establish Detailed Questions to Be Investigated and Develop Hypotheses 11.6.7 Step 7: Perform Analytical Epidemiologic Studies to Test Hypotheses 11.6.8 Step 8: Interpret the Findings and Draw Conclusions 11.6.9 Step 9: Prepare an Outbreak Report 11.6.10 Step 10: Communicate Recommendations to Those Who Need to Know Summary References Part III Vaccine Effectiveness Chapter 12 Vaccine Effectiveness 12.1 Protective Vaccine Effectiveness 12.2 Vaccine Efficacy and Vaccine Effectiveness 12.3 Protection Against Infection, Disease and Disease Progression 12.4 Vaccine Effectiveness Against Infectiousness 12.5 Effectiveness Against Transmission and Population Impact On Transmission Summary References Chapter 13 Estimating Vaccine Effectiveness: General Methodological Principles 13.1 Influence of Case Definitions On Vaccine Effectiveness Estimates 13.2 Biases Due to Misclassification and Prior Infections 13.3 Confounding Bias 13.4 Bias-Indicator Studies 13.5 Vaccine Effectiveness Based On Risks and Rates 13.6 Some Remarks On Modelling Frameworks Summary References Chapter 14 Estimating Vaccine Effectiveness: Cohort and Household Contact Studies 14.1 Cohort Studies With Parallel Groups and Identical Follow-Up 14.1.1 Risk-Based Vaccine Effectiveness 14.1.2 Vaccine Effectiveness Based On the Cumulative Incidence 14.2 Cohort Studies With Arbitrary Follow-Up Times 14.2.1 Cohort Studies With Grouped Person-Time 14.2.2 Cohort Studies With Individual Exposure and Event Histories 14.3 Household Contact Studies 14.3.1 Protective Effectiveness in Household Studies 14.3.2 Vaccine Effectiveness Against Infectiousness 14.3.3 Joint Estimation of Vaccine Effectiveness Estimates From Household Studies Summary References Chapter 15 Estimating Vaccine Effectiveness: Case-Control and Screening Studies 15.1 Retrospective Case-Control Studies With Exclusive Control Groups 15.1.1 Unmatched Case-Control Studies 15.1.2 Matched Case-Control Studies 15.2 Case-Control Studies With Non-Exclusive Control Groups 15.2.1 Concurrent and Nested Case-Control Studies 15.2.2 Case-Cohort Studies 15.3 Test-Negative and Indirect Designs 15.3.1 The Test-Negative Design 15.3.2 The Indirect (Broome) Method 15.4 The Screening Method 15.4.1 Screening Studies 15.4.2 Control of Potential Confounders With the Screening Method Summary References Chapter 16 Waning Vaccine Effectiveness and Modes of Vaccine Action 16.1 Assessing Waning Vaccine Effectiveness When the Incidence of Infection Is Low 16.2 Risk-Based and Rate-Based Vaccine Effectiveness Revisited 16.3 Modes of Vaccine Action 16.4 Determining the Vaccine Action Model 16.5 Assessing Waning Vaccine Effectiveness When the Incidence of Infection Is High 16.6 Evaluating Age-Specific Vaccine Effectiveness in Practice When Infections Are Common Summary References Part IV Risks Associated With Vaccination Programmes Chapter 17 Vaccine Safety: An Introduction 17.1 Adverse Events Following Immunisation 17.1.1 Vaccine Product-Related Reactions (Side Effects) 17.1.2 Vaccine Quality Defect-Related Reactions 17.1.3 Immunisation Error-Related Reaction 17.1.4 Immunisation Anxiety-Related Reaction 17.1.5 Coincidental Adverse Event 17.2 The Context of Vaccine Safety Assessment Summary References Chapter 18 Surveillance of Adverse Events Following Immunisation 18.1 The Rationale for Surveillance of Adverse Events 18.2 Passive Surveillance Systems for AEFIs 18.3 Active Surveillance Systems for AEFIs 18.4 Analysis of AEFI Surveillance Data Summary References Chapter 19 Estimating Vaccination Risks: General Methodological Principles 19.1 Risk Periods 19.2 Measures of Risk 19.3 Multiple Doses, Concomitant Vaccines, Timing of Events and Recurrences 19.4 Bias and Confounding in Studies of Vaccine Safety 19.5 Use of Electronic Databases and Data Networks for Vaccine Studies Summary References Chapter 20 Epidemiological Study Designs for Evaluating Vaccine Safety 20.1 Cohort Studies of Vaccine Safety 20.2 Case-Control Studies of Vaccine Safety and Their Variants 20.3 The Self-Controlled Case Series Method 20.4 SCCS Analyses for Event-Dependent Vaccinations 20.5 The Case-Crossover Method Summary References Part V Benefit–risk Assessment of Vaccination Programmes Chapter 21 Benefit–risk Assessment of Vaccination Programmes 21.1 The Need for Benefit–risk Assessment of Vaccination Programmes 21.2 Benefit–risk Assessment Frameworks 21.3 Integrated Measures of Benefit and Risk 21.3.1 Ratio of Benefit and Risk 21.3.2 Numbers Needed to Vaccinate and to Harm 21.3.3 Difference in Benefit and Risk 21.4 Population Health Metrics 21.4.1 Quality-Adjusted Life Years 21.4.2 Disability-Adjusted Life Years Summary References Index