Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology, Global Edition, 8th Edition

https://www.psychiccowgirl.com/x3hwe6s22nm Cover Title Page Copyright Page Text and Illustration Team Preface Contents 1 An Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology An Introduction to Studying the Human Body 1-1 All living things display responsiveness, growth, reproduction, movement, and metabolism 1-2 Anatomy is structure, and physiology is function Anatomy Physiology 1-3 Levels of organization progress from atoms and molecules to a complete organism 1-4 The human body consists of 11 organ systems 1-5 Homeostasis is the state of internal balance 1-6 Negative feedback opposes variations from normal, whereas positive feedback exaggerates them Negative Feedback Positive Feedback 1-7 Anatomical terms describe body regions, anatomical positions and directions, and body sections Surface Anatomy Sectional Anatomy 1-8 Body cavities of the trunk protect internal organs and allow them to change shape The Thoracic Cavity The Abdominopelvic Cavity SPOTLIGHT Levels of Organization CLINICAL NOTES Homeostasis and Disease Imaging Techniques Chapter Review 2 The Chemical Level of Organization An Introduction to the Chemical Level of Organization 2-1 Atoms are the basic particles of matter Atomic Structure Isotopes Atomic Weight Electron Shells 2-2 Chemical bonds are forces formed by interactions between atoms Ionic Bonds Covalent Bonds Hydrogen Bonds 2-3 Decomposition, synthesis, and exchange reactions are important chemical reactions in physiology Basic Energy Concepts Types of Reactions Reversible Reactions 2-4 Enzymes catalyze specific biochemical reactions by lowering a reaction's activation energy 2-5 Inorganic compounds usually lack carbon, and organic compounds always contain carbon 2-6 Physiological systems depend on water 2-7 Body fluid pH is vital for homeostasis 2-8 Acids, bases, and salts have important physiological roles Salts Buffers and pH 2-9 Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio Monosaccharides Disaccharides and Polysaccharides 2-10 Lipids contain a carbon-to-hydrogen ratio of 1:2 Fatty Acids Fats Steroids Phospholipids 2-11 Proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen and are formed from amino acids Protein Function Protein Structure Enzyme Function 2-12 DNA and RNA are nucleic acids Structure of Nucleic Acids 2-13 ATP is a high-energy compound used by cells 2-14 Chemicals form functional units called cells SPOTLIGHT Chemical Notation CLINICAL NOTE Too Sweet on Sugar? Chapter Review 3 Cell Structure and Function An Introduction to Cell Structure and Function 3-1 The study of cells provides the foundation for understanding human physiology The Study of Cells An Overview of Cell Anatomy 3-2 The plasma membrane separates the cell from its surrounding environment and performs various functions Membrane Lipids Membrane Proteins Membrane Carbohydrates 3-3 Diffusion is a passive transport process that assists membrane passage Diffusion 3-4 Carrier-mediated and vesicular transport processes assist membrane passage Carrier-Mediated Transport Vesicular Transport 3-5 Organelles within the cytoplasm perform specific functions The Cytosol The Organelles 3-6 The nucleus contains DNA and enzymes essential for controlling cellular activities Nuclear Structure and Contents Information Storage in the Nucleus 3-7 DNA controls protein synthesis, cell structure, and cell function Transcription Translation 3-8 Stages of a cell's life cycle include interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis Interphase Mitosis Cytokinesis 3-9 Tumors and cancers are characterized by abnormal cell growth and division 3-10 Cellular differentiation is cellular specialization as a result of gene activation or repression SPOTLIGHT Anatomy of a Model Cell Protein Synthesis, Processing, and Packaging CLINICAL NOTES Inheritable Mitochondrial Disorders DNA Fingerprinting Mutations and Mosaicism Chapter Review 4 The Tissue Level of Organization An Introduction to the Tissue Level of Organization 4-1 The four tissue types are epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous 4-2 Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces, lines cavities and tubular structures, and serves essential functions Functions of Epithelia Intercellular Connections The Epithelial Surface The Basement Membrane Epithelial Renewal and Repair 4-3 Cell shape and number of layers determine the classification of epithelia Cell Layers Cell Shapes Classification of Epithelia Glandular Epithelia 4-4 Connective tissue provides a protective structural framework for other tissue types Connective Tissue Proper Types of Connective Tissue Proper Fluid Connective Tissues Supporting Connective Tissues 4-5 Tissue membranes are physical barriers of four types: mucous, serous, cutaneous, and synovial Mucous Membranes Serous Membranes The Cutaneous Membrane Synovial Membranes 4-6 The three types of muscle tissue are skeletal, cardiac, and smooth Skeletal Muscle Tissue Cardiac Muscle Tissue Smooth Muscle Tissue 4-7 Nervous tissue responds to stimuli and propagates electrical impulses throughout the body 4-8 The response to tissue injury involves inflammation and regeneration 4-9 With advancing age, tissue repair declines and cancer rates increase Aging and Tissue Structure Aging and Cancer Rates SPOTLIGHT Inflammation and Regeneration CLINICAL NOTES Exfoliative Cytology Marfan Syndrome Adipose Tissue and Weight Control Cartilages and Joint Injuries Chapter Review 5 The Integumentary System An Introduction to the Integumentary System 5-1 The epidermis is composed of strata (layers) with various functions Stratum Basale Intermediate Strata Stratum Corneum 5-2 Epidermal pigmentation and dermal circulation influence skin color The Role of Pigmentation The Role of Dermal Circulation 5-3 Sunlight has beneficial and detrimental effects on the skin The Epidermis and Vitamin D3 Skin Cancers 5-4 The dermis is the tissue layer that supports the epidermis 5-5 The subcutaneous layer connects the dermis to underlying tissues 5-6 Hair is composed of dead, keratinized cells that have been pushed to the skin surface The Structure of Hair and Hair Follicles Functions of Hair Hair Color 5-7 Sebaceous glands and sweat glands are exocrine glands found in the skin Sebaceous (Oil) Glands Sweat Glands 5-8 Nails are keratinized epidermal cells that protect the tips of fingers and toes 5-9 After an injury, the integument is repaired in several phases Repair of Skin Injuries Effects of Burns 5-10 Effects of aging include dermal thinning, wrinkling, and reduced melanocyte activity SPOTLIGHT The Epidermis CLINICAL NOTES Drug Administration through the Skin Disorders of Keratin Production Dermatitis Hair Loss Burns Chapter Review 6 The Skeletal System An Introduction to the Skeletal System 6-1 The skeletal system has five major functions 6-2 Bones are classified according to shape and structure Macroscopic Features of Bone Microscopic Features of Bone 6-3 Ossification and appositional growth are processes of bone formation and enlargement Intramembranous Ossification Endochondral Ossification Bone Growth and Body Proportions Requirements for Normal Bone Growth 6-4 Bone growth and development depend on a balance between bone formation and resorption, and on calcium availability The Role of Remodeling in Support The Skeleton as a Calcium Reserve Repair of Fractures 6-5 Osteopenia has a widespread effect on aging skeletal tissue 6-6 The bones of the skeleton are distinguished by bone markings and grouped into two skeletal divisions Bone Markings (Surface Features) Skeletal Divisions 6-7 The bones of the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage make up the axial skeleton The Skull The Vertebral Column and Thoracic Cage 6-8 The pectoral girdles and upper limb bones, and the pelvic girdle and lower limb bones, make up the appendicular skeleton The Pectoral Girdles The Upper Limb The Pelvic Girdle The Lower Limb 6-9 Joints are categorized according to their range of motion or anatomical organization Immovable Joints (Synarthroses) Slightly Movable Joints (Amphiarthroses) Freely Movable Joints (Diarthroses) 6-10 The structure and functions of synovial joints enable various skeletal movements Types of Movements at Synovial Joints Types of Synovial Joints 6-11 Intervertebral joints and appendicular joints demonstrate functional differences in support and mobility Intervertebral Joints Joints of the Upper Limb Joints of the Lower Limb 6-12 The skeletal system supports and stores energy and minerals for other body systems SPOTLIGHT Synovial Joints CLINICAL NOTES Types of Fractures and Steps in Repair Osteoporosis Rheumatism and Arthritis Hip Fractures Chapter Review 7 The Muscular System An Introduction to Muscle Tissue 7-1 Skeletal muscle performs five primary functions 7-2 A skeletal muscle contains muscle tissue, connective tissues, blood vessels, and nerves Connective Tissue Organization Blood Vessels and Nerves 7-3 Skeletal muscle fibers have distinctive features The Sarcolemma and Transverse Tubules Myofibrils The Sarcoplasmic Reticulum Sarcomeres 7-4 The nervous system and skeletal muscles communicate at neuromuscular junctions The Neuromuscular Junction The Contraction Cycle 7-5 Sarcomere shortening and muscle fiber stimulation produce tension Frequency of Muscle Fiber Stimulation Number of Muscle Fibers Activated Isotonic and Isometric Contractions Muscle Elongation Following Contraction 7-6 ATP is the energy source for muscle contraction ATP and CP Reserves ATP Generation Energy Use and the Level of Muscle Activity Muscle Fatigue The Recovery Period 7-7 Muscle performance depends on muscle fiber type and physical conditioning Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers Physical Conditioning 7-8 Cardiac and smooth muscle tissues differ in structure and function from skeletal muscle tissue Cardiac Muscle Tissue Smooth Muscle Tissue 7-9 Descriptive terms are used to name skeletal muscles Origins, Insertions, and Actions Names of Skeletal Muscles 7-10 Axial muscles are muscles of the head and neck, vertebral column, trunk, and pelvic floor Muscles of the Head and Neck Muscles of the Spine The Axial Muscles of the Trunk Muscles of the Pelvic Floor 7-11 Appendicular muscles are muscles of the shoulders, upper limbs, pelvic girdle, and lower limbs Muscles of the Shoulders and Upper Limbs Muscles of the Pelvis and Lower Limbs 7-12 The size and power of muscle tissue decrease with advancing age 7-13 Exercise produces responses in multiple body systems SPOTLIGHTS Events at the Neuromuscular Junction The Contraction Cycle CLINICAL NOTES Interference at the NMJ and Muscular Paralysis Rigor Mortis Tetanus Hernias Intramuscular Injections Chapter Review 8 The Nervous System An Introduction to the Nervous System 8-1 The nervous system has anatomical and functional divisions 8-2 Neurons are specialized for intercellular communication and are supported by cells called neuroglia Neurons Neuroglia Organization of Neurons in the Nervous System 8-3 In neurons, a change in the plasma membrane's electrical potential may result in an action potential (nerve impulse) The Membrane Potential Propagation of an Action Potential 8-4 At synapses, communication takes place among neurons or between neurons and other cells Structure of a Synapse Synaptic Function and Neurotransmitters Neuronal Pools 8-5 The brain and spinal cord are surrounded by three layers of membranes called the meninges The Dura Mater The Arachnoid The Pia Mater 8-6 The spinal cord contains gray matter surrounded by white matter and connects to 31 pairs of spinal nerves Gross Anatomy Sectional Anatomy 8-7 The brain has several principal structures, each with specific functions The Major Regions of the Brain The Ventricles of the Brain The Cerebrum The Diencephalon The Midbrain The Pons The Cerebellum The Medulla Oblongata 8-8 The PNS connects the CNS with the body's external and internal environments The Cranial Nerves The Spinal Nerves Nerve Plexuses 8-9 Reflexes are rapid, automatic responses to stimuli Simple Reflexes Complex Reflexes Integration and Control of Spinal Reflexes 8-10 Separate pathways carry sensory information and motor commands Sensory Pathways Motor Pathways 8-11 The autonomic nervous system, composed of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions, is involved in the unconscious regulation of body functions The Sympathetic Division The Parasympathetic Division Relationships between the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions 8-12 Aging produces various structural and functional changes in the nervous system 8-13 The nervous system is closely integrated with other body systems SPOTLIGHTS The Generation of an Action Potential Propagation of an Action Potential CLINICAL NOTES Demyelination Disorders Epidural and Subdural Hemorrhages Spinal Cord Injuries Aphasia and Dyslexia Seizures Cerebral Palsy Alzheimer's Disease Chapter Review 9 The General and Special Senses An Introduction to General and Special Senses 9-1 Sensory receptors connect our internal and external environments with the nervous system 9-2 General sensory receptors are classified by the type of stimulus that excites them Pain Temperature Touch, Pressure, and Position Chemical Detection 9-3 Olfaction, the sense of smell, involves olfactory receptors responding to chemical stimuli The Olfactory Pathways 9-4 Gustation, the sense of taste, involves taste receptors responding to chemical stimuli The Taste Pathways 9-5 Internal eye structures contribute to vision, while accessory eye structures provide protection The Accessory Structures of the Eye The Eye 9-6 Photoreceptors respond to light and change it into electrical signals essential to visual physiology Rods and Cones Photoreceptor Structure Photoreception The Visual Pathways 9-7 Equilibrium sensations originate within the internal ear, while hearing involves the detection and interpretation of sound waves Anatomy of the Ear Equilibrium Hearing 9-8 Aging is accompanied by a noticeable decline in the special senses Smell and Aging Taste and Aging Vision and Aging Equilibrium and Aging Hearing and Aging SPOTLIGHT Refractive Problems CLINICAL NOTES Cataracts Visual Acuity Night Blindness Hearing Deficits Chapter Review 10 The Endocrine System An Introduction to the Endocrine System 10-1 Homeostasis is preserved through intercellular communication 10-2 The endocrine system regulates physiological processes through the binding of hormones to receptors The Structure of Hormones Hormone Action The Secretion and Distribution of Hormones The Control of Endocrine Activity 10-3 The bilobed pituitary gland is an endocrine organ that releases nine peptide hormones The Anterior Lobe of the Pituitary Gland The Posterior Lobe of the Pituitary Gland 10-4 The thyroid gland synthesizes thyroid hormones that affect the rate of metabolism Thyroid Follicles and Thyroid Hormones The C Cells of the Thyroid Gland and Calcitonin 10-5 The four parathyroid glands, embedded in the posterior surfaces of the thyroid gland, secrete parathyroid hormone to elevate blood calcium levels 10-6 The adrenal glands, consisting of a cortex and a medulla, cap each kidney and secrete several hormones The Adrenal Cortex The Adrenal Medulla 10-7 The pineal gland, attached to the third ventricle, secretes melatonin 10-8 The endocrine pancreas produces insulin and glucagon, hormones that regulate blood glucose levels Diabetes Mellitus 10-9 Many organs have secondary endocrine functions The Intestines The Kidneys The Heart The Thymus The Gonads Adipose Tissue 10-10 Hormones interact to produce coordinated physiological responses Hormones and Growth Hormones and Stress Hormones and Behavior Hormones and Aging 10-11 Extensive integration occurs between the endocrine system and other body systems SPOTLIGHT The General Adaptation Syndrome CLINICAL NOTES Diabetes Insipidus Diabetes Mellitus Hormones and Athletic Performance Endocrine Disorders Chapter Review 11 The Cardiovascular System: Blood An Introduction to the Cardiovascular System 11-1 Blood has several important functions and unique physical characteristics Composition of Blood Blood Collection and Analysis 11-2 Plasma, the fluid portion of blood, contains significant quantities of plasma proteins Plasma Proteins 11-3 Red blood cells, formed by erythropoiesis, contain hemoglobin that can be recycled Abundance of Red Blood Cells Structure of RBCs Hemoglobin Structure and Function RBC Life Span and Circulation RBC Formation 11-4 The ABO blood types and Rh system are based on antigen–antibody responses Cross-Reactions in Transfusions Testing for Blood Compatibility 11-5 The various types of white blood cells contribute to the body's defenses WBC Circulation and Movement Types of WBCs The Differential Count and Changes in WBC Abundance WBC Formation 11-6 Platelets, disc-shaped structures formed from megakaryocytes, function in the clotting process 11-7 Hemostasis involves vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, and blood coagulation Phases of Hemostasis The Clotting Process Clot Retraction and Removal SPOTLIGHT The Composition of Whole Blood CLINICAL NOTES Abnormal Hemoglobin Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn Abnormal Hemostasis Chapter Review 12 The Cardiovascular System: The Heart The Heart's Role in the Cardiovascular System 12-1 The heart is a four-chambered organ, supplied by coronary circulation, that pumps oxygen-poor blood to the lungs and oxygen-rich blood to the rest of the body The Surface Anatomy of the Heart The Heart Wall Internal Anatomy and Organization 12-2 Contractile cells and the conducting system produce each heartbeat, and an electrocardiogram records the associated electrical events Contractile Cells The Conducting System The Electrocardiogram 12-3 Events during a complete heartbeat make up a cardiac cycle Phases of the Cardiac Cycle Heart Sounds 12-4 Heart dynamics examines the factors that affect cardiac output Blood Volume Reflexes Autonomic Innervation Hormones SPOTLIGHT The Heart: Internal Anatomy and Blood Flow CLINICAL NOTES Heart Valve Disorders Abnormal Conditions Affecting Cardiac Output Chapter Review 13 The Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels and Circulation An Introduction to Blood Vessels and Circulation 13-1 Arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins differ in size, structure, and function The Structure of Vessel Walls Arteries Capillaries Veins 13-2 Pressure and resistance determine blood flow and affect rates of capillary exchange Factors Affecting Blood Flow Cardiovascular Pressures within the Systemic Circuit 13-3 Cardiovascular regulation involves autoregulation, neural processes, and endocrine responses Autoregulation of Blood Flow within Tissues Neural Control of Blood Pressure and Blood Flow Hormones and Cardiovascular Regulation 13-4 The cardiovascular system adapts to physiological stress Exercise and the Cardiovascular System The Cardiovascular Response to Hemorrhage 13-5 The pulmonary and systemic circuits of the cardiovascular system exhibit three general functional patterns 13-6 In the pulmonary circuit, deoxygenated blood enters the lungs in arteries, and oxygenated blood leaves the lungs in veins 13-7 The systemic circuit carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to tissues other than the lungs' exchange surfaces, and returns deoxygenated blood to the right atrium Systemic Arteries Systemic Veins 13-8 Modifications of fetal and maternal cardiovascular systems promote the exchange of materials until birth Placental Blood Supply Fetal Circulation in the Heart and Great Vessels Circulatory Changes at Birth 13-9 Aging affects the blood, heart, and blood vessels 13-10 The cardiovascular system is both structurally and functionally linked to all other systems SPOTLIGHT Major Vessels of the Systemic Circuit CLINICAL NOTES Arteriosclerosis Capillary Dynamics and Blood Volume and Pressure Checking the Pulse and Blood Pressure Exercise, Cardiovascular Fitness, and Health Shock Chapter Review 14 The Lymphatic System and Immunity An Introduction to the Lymphatic System and Immunity 14-1 Anatomical barriers and defense processes make up nonspecific defense, and lymphocytes provide specific defense 14-2 Lymphatic vessels, lymphocytes, lymphoid tissues, and lymphoid organs function in body defenses Functions of the Lymphatic System Lymphatic Vessels Lymphocytes Lymphoid Tissues Lymphoid Organs 14-3 Innate (nonspecific) defenses respond in a characteristic way regardless of the potential threat Physical Barriers Phagocytes Immune Surveillance Interferons The Complement System Inflammation Fever 14-4 Adaptive (specific) defenses respond to specific threats and are either cell mediated or antibody mediated Forms of Immunity An Overview of Adaptive Immunity 14-5 T cells play a role in starting and controlling adaptive immunity Antigen Presentation T Cell Activation 14-6 B cells respond to antigens by producing specific antibodies B Cell Sensitization and Activation Antibody Structure Antibody Function Primary and Secondary Responses to Antigen Exposure Summary of the Immune Response Hormones of the Immune System 14-7 Abnormal immune responses result in immune disorders Autoimmune Disorders Immunodeficiency Diseases Allergies 14-8 The immune response diminishes as we age 14-9 For all body systems, the lymphatic system provides defenses against infection and returns tissue fluid to the circulation SPOTLIGHT Origin and Distribution of Lymphocytes CLINICAL NOTES "Swollen Glands" Injury to the Spleen AIDS Stress and the Immune Response Manipulating the Immune Response Chapter Review 15 The Respiratory System An Introduction to the Respiratory System 15-1 The respiratory system, composed of air-conducting and respiratory portions, has several basic functions Functions of the Respiratory System Structures of the Respiratory System 15-2 The nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and larger bronchioles conduct air into the lungs The Nose The Pharynx The Larynx The Trachea The Bronchi 15-3 The smallest bronchioles and the alveoli within the lungs make up the respiratory portion of the respiratory tract The Bronchioles The Blood Air Barrier The Lungs The Pleural Cavities 15-4 External respiration and internal respiration allow gas exchange within the body 15-5 Pulmonary ventilation—the exchange of air between the atmosphere and the lungs—involves pressure changes and muscle movement Pressure and Airflow to the Lungs Compliance Modes of Breathing Lung Volumes and Capacities 15-6 Gas exchange depends on the partial pressures of gases and the diffusion of molecules Mixed Gases and Partial Pressures Partial Pressures in the Pulmonary and Systemic Circuits 15-7 In gas transport, most oxygen is transported bound to hemoglobin, whereas carbon dioxide is transported in three ways Oxygen Transport Carbon Dioxide Transport 15-8 Neurons in the medulla oblongata and pons, along with respiratory reflexes, control respiration The Local Control of Respiration Control by the Respiratory Centers of the Brain The Reflex Control of Respiration Control by Higher Centers Respiratory Changes at Birth 15-9 Respiratory performance declines with age 15-10 The respiratory system provides oxygen to, and removes carbon dioxide from, other organ systems SPOTLIGHTS Pulmonary Ventilation The Control of Respiration CLINICAL NOTES Cystic Fibrosis Tracheal Blockage Pneumonia Tuberculosis Decompression Sickness Carbon Monoxide Poisoning Emphysema and Lung Cancer Chapter Review 16 The Digestive System An Introduction to the Digestive System 16-1 The digestive system—the digestive tract and accessory organs—performs various food-processing functions Functions of the Digestive System Histological Organization of the Digestive Tract The Movement of Digestive Materials 16-2 The oral cavity contains the tongue, salivary glands, and teeth, each with specific functions The Tongue Salivary Glands Teeth 16-3 The pharynx is a passageway between the oral cavity and the esophagus The Pharynx The Esophagus Swallowing 16-4 The J-shaped stomach receives food from the esophagus and aids in chemical and mechanical digestion The Gastric Wall The Regulation of Gastric Activity Digestion in the Stomach 16-5 The small intestine chemically digests and absorbs nutrients The Intestinal Wall Intestinal Movements Intestinal Secretions Intestinal Hormones Digestion in the Small Intestine 16-6 The pancreas, liver, and gallbladder are accessory organs that assist with chemical digestion in the small intestine The Pancreas The Liver The Gallbladder 16-7 The large intestine is divided into three parts with regional specialization The Cecum The Colon The Rectum The Functions of the Large Intestine 16-8 Chemical digestion is the alteration of food that allows the absorption and use of nutrients The Processing and Absorption of Nutrients Water and Electrolyte Absorption Absorption of Vitamins 16-9 Many age-related changes affect digestion and absorption 16-10 The digestive system is extensively integrated with other body systems SPOTLIGHTS Regulation of Gastric Activity Chemical Events in Digestion CLINICAL NOTES Gastritis and Peptic Ulcers Stomach Cancer Vomiting Pancreatitis Liver Disease Colorectal Cancer Diverticulosis Diarrhea and Constipation Lactose Intolerance Chapter Review 17 Metabolism and Energetics An Introduction to Nutrition and Metabolism 17-1 Metabolism refers to all the chemical reactions in the body, and energetics refers to the flow and transformation of energy 17-2 Carbohydrate metabolism involves glycolysis, ATP production, and gluconeogenesis Glycolysis Energy Production Within Mitochondria Energy Yield of Glycolysis and Cellular Respiration Gluconeogenesis (Glucose Synthesis) Alternate Catabolic Pathways 17-3 Lipid metabolism involves lipolysis, beta-oxidation, and the transport and distribution of lipids as lipoproteins and free fatty acids Lipid Catabolism Lipids and Energy Production Lipid Synthesis Lipid Transport and Distribution 17-4 Protein catabolism involves transamination and deamination, and protein synthesis involves amination and transamination Amino Acid Catabolism Amino Acids and Protein Synthesis 17-5 Nucleic acid catabolism involves RNA, but not DNA RNA Catabolism Nucleic Acid Synthesis 17-6 Adequate nutrition is necessary to prevent deficiency disorders and maintain homeostasis Food Groups and a Balanced Diet Minerals, Vitamins, and Water Diet and Disease 17-7 Metabolic rate is the average caloric expenditure, and thermoregulation involves balancing heat-producing and heat-losing processes The Energy Content of Food Energy Expenditure: Metabolic Rate Thermoregulation 17-8 Caloric needs decline with advancing age SPOTLIGHT Electron Transport Chain and ATP Formation CLINICAL NOTES Carbohydrate Loading Dietary Fats and Cholesterol Ketoacidosis Chapter Review 18 The Urinary System An Introduction to the Urinary System 18-1 The urinary system—made up of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra—has three major functions 18-2 The kidneys are highly vascular organs containing functional units called nephrons, which perform filtration, reabsorption, and secretion Superficial and Sectional Anatomy of the Kidneys The Blood Supply to the Kidneys The Nephron 18-3 Different portions of the nephron form urine by filtration, reabsorption, and secretion Nephron Processes Filtration at the Glomerulus Reabsorption and Secretion along the Renal Tubule Normal Urine 18-4 Normal kidney function depends on a stable GFR The Local Regulation of Kidney Function The Hormonal Control of Kidney Function 18-5 Urine is transported by the ureters, stored in the bladder, and eliminated through the urethra, aided by urinary reflexes The Ureters The Urinary Bladder The Urethra The Control of Urination 18-6 Fluid balance, electrolyte balance, and acid-base balance are interrelated and essential to homeostasis The ECF and the ICF 18-7 Blood pressure and osmosis are involved in maintaining fluid and electrolyte balance Fluid Balance Electrolyte Balance 18-8 In acid-base balance, regulation of hydrogen ions in body fluids involves buffer systems and compensation by respiratory and renal processes Acids in the Body Buffers and Buffer Systems Maintaining Acid-Base Balance Acid-Base Disorders 18-9 Age-related changes affect kidney function and the control of urination 18-10 The urinary system is one of several body systems involved in waste excretion SPOTLIGHT A Summary of Kidney Function CLINICAL NOTES Kidney Failure Urinary Tract Infections Incontinence Disturbances of Acid-Base Balance Chapter Review 19 The Reproductive System An Introduction to the Reproductive System 19-1 Basic reproductive system structures are gonads, ducts, accessory glands and organs, and external genitalia 19-2 Sperm formation (spermatogenesis) occurs in the testes, and hormones from the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and testes control male reproductive functions The Testes Spermatogenesis The Male Reproductive Tract The Accessory Glands The External Genitalia Hormones and Male Reproductive Function 19-3 Ovum production (oogenesis) occurs in the ovaries, and hormones from the pituitary gland and ovaries control female reproductive functions The Ovaries The Uterine Tubes The Uterus The Vagina The External Genitalia The Mammary Glands Hormones and the Female Reproductive Cycle 19-4 The autonomic nervous system influences male and female sexual function Male Sexual Function Female Sexual Function 19-5 With age, decreasing levels of reproductive hormones cause functional changes Menopause The Male Climacteric 19-6 The reproductive system secretes hormones affecting growth and metabolism of all body systems SPOTLIGHTS Regulation of Male Reproduction Regulation of Female Reproduction CLINICAL NOTES Cryptorchidism Prostatitis Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID) Amenorrhea Breast Cancer Infertility Sexually Transmitted Diseases Birth Control Strategies Chapter Review 20 Development and Inheritance An Introduction to Development and Inheritance 20-1 Development is a continuous process that occurs from fertilization to maturity 20-2 Fertilization—the fusion of a secondary oocyte and a sperm—forms a zygote An Overview of Fertilization Ovulation and Oocyte Activation 20-3 Gestation consists of three stages of prenatal development: the first, second, and third trimesters 20-4 Critical events of the first trimester are cleavage, implantation, placentation, and embryogenesis Cleavage and Blastocyst Formation Implantation Placentation Embryogenesis 20-5 During the second and third trimesters, maternal organ systems support the developing fetus, and the uterus undergoes structural and functional changes The Effects of Pregnancy on Maternal Systems Structural and Functional Changes in the Uterus 20-6 Labor consists of the dilation, expulsion, and placental stages The Stages of Labor Premature Labor Multiple Births 20-7 Postnatal stages are the neonatal period, infancy, childhood, adolescence, and maturity, followed by senescence The Neonatal Period, Infancy, and Childhood Adolescence and Maturity 20-8 Genes and chromosomes determine patterns of inheritance Patterns of Inheritance The Human Genome SPOTLIGHT Extra-Embryonic Membranes and Placenta Formation CLINICAL NOTES Abortion Chromosomal Abnormalities and Genetic Analysis Chapter Review Answers Answers to Checkpoints and Review Questions Appendix Normal Physiological Values Glossary/Index A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Credits