Discovering Cosmetic Science

follow url Cover Title Copyright Foreword Acknowledgements Contributor Biographies Contents Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 How Many Cosmetic Products Do You Use in the Day? 1.2 What Is a ‘Cosmetic’? 1.3 What Goes into a Cosmetic Product? 1.4 The Importance of the Identities and Structures of Chemical Compounds 1.4.1 Organic and Inorganic Chemistry 1.4.2 Carbon Chains and Carbon Rings 1.5 The Importance of How Chemical Compounds Are Held Together 1.5.1 Did You Know That Some Ingredients in Cosmetic Products Have an Electrical Charge? 1.5.2 Did You Know That Some Ingredients in Cosmetic Products Have ‘Polarity’? 1.5.3 Did You Know That Some Compounds Are Held Together More Strongly Than Others? 1.6 The Importance of How Chemical Compounds Fall Apart 1.7 Prepared to Read On? References Chapter 2 Clean Chemistry – The Science Behind Cleansing Products 2.1 Introduction to Surfactant Behaviour 2.1.1 So, What Makes Surfactants So Special? 2.1.2 How Does the Special Structure Affect How Surfactants Behave? 2.1.3 Why Isn't Using Water Alone Enough to Clean Things? 2.1.4 Experiment at Home 2.1.5 How Do Surfactants Create Foam? 2.1.6 How Do Surfactants Help to Clean Dirt Away? Surfactants 2.2 Surfactants Used for Cleaning Did You Know? Did You Know? 2.3 Secondary Surfactants – Luxurious, Creamy Foams 2.4 Finishing Touches Did You Know? 2.5 Alternative Systems Did You Know? 2.6 Natural/Organic and Sustainability Did You Know? 2.7 Conclusion Chapter 3 Good Hair Day: The Science Behind Hair-care Products 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Hair Structure 3.3 Hair Diversity 3.4 The Living Follicle 3.5 Sebum and Hair Greasiness 3.6 Hair Damage 3.7 Hair Thinning and Hair Loss 3.8 Hair Greying 3.9 Shampoo Surfactant Bases 3.10 Shampoo Conditioning Systems 3.11 Hair Conditioners 3.12 Hair Styling 3.13 Straightening Treatments 3.14 Bringing It All Together References Chapter 4 Oral Care – A Mouthful of Chemistry 4.1 Physiology of Teeth 4.1.1 Overview and Structure 4.1.2 Enamel and Dentine 4.1.3 Saliva 4.1.4 The Pellicle 4.2 When Good Mouths Go Bad 4.2.1 Plaque (aka Dental Biofilm) 4.2.2 Dental Calculus (aka Tartar) 4.2.3 Periodontal Disease (Gum Disease) 4.2.4 Tooth Decay (aka Dental Caries) 4.2.5 Tooth Wear (aka Dental Erosion) 4.2.6 Dentinal Hypersensitivity (aka ‘Sensitive Teeth’) 4.2.7 Tooth Stain and Whitening 4.2.8 Oral Malodour (Bad Breath) 4.3 Just What Are All These Ingredients in My Oral Care Product? 4.3.1 Overview 4.3.2 Fluoride 4.3.3 Abrasives 4.3.4 Anti-sensitivity 4.3.5 Stain Removal/Whitening 4.3.6 Anti-gingivitis 4.3.7 Calculus Control 4.3.8 Enamel Care 4.3.9 Other Ingredients 4.3.10 Mouthwash 4.3.11 How Are Claims for Oral Care Product Performance Substantiated? 4.4 Conclusion Further Reading References Chapter 5 You Against the World! – The Science Behind Skin and Skincare Products 5.1 The Skin – What Exactly Does Our Skin Do? 5.1.1 Skin Deep – What Is Beneath the Surface? 5.1.2 We Are Not Alone – What's On The Surface? 5.2 One Size Fits All? – All Skin Is Different 5.2.1 How and Why Does the Skin's Appearance Change with Age? 5.2.2 Does Skin Vary from Individual to Individual? 5.2.3 Are There Differences Between Men's and Women's Skin? 5.3 Staying on the Surface – Do Cosmetic Ingredients Go into The Skin? 5.4 What Goes into Skincare Products and Why – Care and Protection for Your Skin 5.4.1 How Do Cosmetics Make a Difference to Skin Appearance? 5.5 Moisturization – Where Chemistry Meets Biology 5.5.1 What Is the Difference Between Moisturization and Hydration? 5.5.2 Which Ingredients Are Important in an Effective Skin Moisturizer? 5.6 Emulsions – Better Together! 5.6.1 What Are Emulsifiers and Why Are They All Different? 5.6.2 How Can We Make Emulsions Stable for Several Years? 5.7 Touch and Texture – It's Just A Feeling 5.7.1 What Is Rheology and Why Is It So Important in Skincare? 5.7.2 How Can We Control the Rheology and Skin Feel of Cosmetic Creams? 5.7.2.1 Vegetable Gums 5.7.2.2 Polymers 5.7.2.3 Starches 5.7.2.4 Waxes 5.7.3 By What Other Ways Can We Affect the Feel of Skincare Formulas? 5.8 Different Types of Skincare Products 5.8.1 Why Do We Have Day and Night Moisturizers, and Are They Different? 5.8.2 Do Men Need Different Moisturizers to Women? 5.8.3 How Important Are Skincare Regimes and What Are the Necessary Products? 5.8.4 Are the Skin Concerns for the Body the Same As Those for the Face? – How Many Different Moisturizers Do We Need? 5.9 Conclusion References Chapter 6 More Than a Smudge of Colour – The Science Behind Colour Cosmetics 6.1 Why Does Something Appear Coloured? 6.2 How Can We Create Coloured Products? 6.2.1 Dyes 6.2.2 Why Pigments Are Crucial for Colour Cosmetics 6.2.2.1 Organic Pigments 6.2.2.2 Lakes 6.2.2.3 Toners 6.2.2.4 True Pigments 6.2.2.5 Inorganic Pigments 6.2.3 Are Inorganic and Organic Pigments the Only Materials Used to Create Colour? 6.2.3.1 How Does the ‘Pearl Effect’ Arise? 6.2.3.2 Creating Colour Using Light 6.2.3.3 Light-diffusing or Soft-focus Pigments 6.3 Are Pigments Easy to Use? 6.3.1 How Do You Disperse Pigments? 6.4 Why the Texture of Cosmetic Formulations Is so Important 6.4.1 Foundations – Are They More Than Just Colour? 6.4.2 Powders – Simple Yet Surprisingly Complex 6.4.3 Lipsticks: More Than Lip Service 6.5 The Art of Colour Matching 6.6 Curl up and Dye? 6.6.1 Oxidation and pH 6.6.2 Natural Dyes 6.6.3 Temporary Hair Colourants 6.7 Conclusion Further Reading Chapter 7 Follow the Scent – The Science Behind the Fragrance in Products 7.1 Sources and Mechanism of Odour Formation 7.1.1 Mechanisms 7.2 Odour Recognition (Box 7.1) 7.2.1 Specialized Olfactory Sensory Neurons 7.2.2 Infinite Combinations 7.3 Smell and Emotions 7.4 The Message Carried by a Fragrance 7.5 Creating and Masking Odours 7.5.1 The Creative Process and the Teams Involved 7.5.1.1 What is a Fragrance House? 7.5.1.2 Sales Teams 7.5.1.3 Marketing Teams 7.5.1.4 Creative Teams 7.5.1.5 The Fragrance Developer's Expertise 7.5.1.6 The Perfumer's Expertise 7.5.2 The Construction of a Fragrance 7.5.2.1 Accords and Fragrances 7.5.2.2 Pyramids and Volatility: Top, Heart and Base Notes 7.5.2.3 Fragrance Substantivity 7.5.3 Fragrance Families 7.5.4 Fragrances in Different Bases and Products 7.5.5 Covering Malodours 7.6 Stability: Why Do Fragrances Change Over Time? 7.6.1 Base Interaction 7.6.2 Stability 7.6.2.1 Assessing Stability – Temperature 7.6.2.2 Assessing Stability – Light 7.6.2.3 Assessing Stability – Humidity 7.6.2.4 Assessing Stability (see Box 7.6) 7.6.2.5 What Is the Best Way to Preserve a Fragrance? 7.7 Essential Chemistry 7.7.1 How Were Aroma Chemicals Discovered? 7.7.2 Categories of Aroma Molecules 7.8 Extraction Methods 7.8.1 Expression 7.8.2 Distillation 7.8.3 Solvent Extraction 7.8.4 Developments in Scientific Research Methods to Analyse Natural Scents 7.9 Conclusion Further Reading Chapter 8 The Inside Story – The Science Behind Active Ingredients 8.1 Vitamins 8.1.1 Where Do Vitamins Come From? 8.1.2 Oil-soluble Vitamins 8.1.2.1 Vitamin E: A Staple Ingredient 8.1.2.2 Vitamin A: Not Just Key to Human Sight 8.1.3 Water-soluble Vitamins 8.1.3.1 Vitamin C: A Natural Protector 8.1.3.2 Vitamin B: A Multi-functional Family 8.1.4 Minerals 8.1.5 Other Vitamins 8.2 Peptides 8.2.1 Why Are Peptides Useful in Cosmetics? 8.2.2 How Are Peptides Named? 8.2.3 Discovering New Peptide Ingredients 8.2.4 Which Peptides Are Commonly Used? 8.2.5 Is It Just Hype? 8.3 Hydroxy Acids 8.3.1 Why Are Hydroxy Acids Useful in Cosmetics? 8.3.2 Hydroxy Acids in Peel Products 8.3.3 Using Products Containing AHAs 8.4 UV Filters: Protecting Products and the Skin/Hair 8.4.1 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 8.4.2 What Is Sun Protection Factor (SPF)? 8.4.3 How Does UVA Protection Differ from SPF? 8.4.4 How Do Sunscreen Products Work? 8.4.5 Product Innovation 8.4.6 Why Do Coloured Cosmetics Sometimes Contain UV Filters Even If They Don't Offer UV Protection? 8.4.7 The Hair Needs Protecting Too! 8.5 Antioxidants 8.5.1 What Is Oxidation? 8.5.1.1 What Are Free Radicals and Oxidative Stress? 8.5.2 How Do Antioxidants Work? 8.5.2.1 Products Need Protecting Too! 8.6 Antimicrobials 8.6.1 The Germs (Microorganisms) Around Us 8.6.1.1 Bacteria 8.6.1.2 Yeasts 8.6.1.3 Moulds 8.6.1.4 Viruses 8.6.2 Products Need Protecting – ‘Preserving’ 8.6.3 What Happens if Cosmetics Are Not Preserved? 8.6.4 How Do Companies Know If Their Products Will Remain Safe If They Become Contaminated? 8.6.5 Antimicrobial Protection on the Skin 8.7 Natural Extracts 8.7.1 Producing Natural Extracts Using Stem Cells 8.8 Delivery Systems 8.8.1 Why and Where Are Delivery Systems Used? 8.8.2 Examples of Delivery Systems 8.8.2.1 Time-controlled Release 8.8.2.2 Physical Barrier Disruption 8.9 Antiperspirant and Deodorant Effects 8.9.1 What Is the Difference Between an Antiperspirant and a Deodorant? 8.9.2 Why Do Antiperspirants and Deodorants Come in Different Formats? 8.10 Conclusion Chapter 9 Testing and More Testing – The Science Behind Keeping Your Skin Safe and Healthy 9.1 Cosmetic Products – How We Keep You and Your Skin Safe and Healthy 9.2 Stability Testing – Making Sure a Product Is Fit for Purpose 9.2.1 Microbiological Testing – Will It Go Mouldy? 9.2.2 Chemical Stability – Will My Product Change Colour? 9.2.3 Period After Opening (PAO) and Shelf-life – How Long Will It Be Okay to Use? 9.3 Safety Assessment of Cosmetic Ingredients and Finished Products – Is My Chosen Product Going to Harm Me? 9.3.1 Hazard and Risk – The Tale of a Shark and the Swimmer 9.3.2 Identifying the Hazard Characteristics of a Cosmetic Ingredient 9.3.3 Testing New Cosmetic Ingredients Using Non-animal Alternative Methods 9.4 Product Claims – Will My Product Do What It Says on the Tin? 9.4.1 Sun Protection Testing – Will My Cream Protect Me from the Harmful Effects of the Sun? 9.5 Safety-related Claims Made on Some Products 9.5.1 Will Your Product Damage My Eyes or Make Them Sting? 9.5.2 Hypoallergenic – Exactly What Does This Mean? 9.6 Post-market Surveillance – the Customer's Story of Using a Product 9.7 What Does All This Mean to Me? Further Reading Chapter 10 Myths and Scares – Science in Perspective 10.1 Are Cosmetics Tested on Animals? 10.1.1 European Union (EU) 10.1.2 Global Challenges 10.2 How Much Does the Skin Absorb? 10.2.1 Myth – 60% of Everything You Put on Your Skin Is Absorbed 10.2.2 Fact – Different Skin Types Have Different Barrier Functionality 10.3 Should I Avoid Certain Ingredients? 10.3.1 Why Are Some Products Labelled As Being ‘Free-from’ Certain Ingredients? 10.3.1.1 European Union 10.3.2 Parabens 10.3.2.1 Myth – Parabens Cause Breast Cancer 10.3.3 Sulfates 10.3.3.1 Myth – SLS/SLES Cause Cancer 10.3.4 Silicones 10.3.4.1 Myth – Silicones Block the Skin's Pores and Cause Build-up on the Hair 10.3.5 How Do I Know That the Ingredients in the Products I Use Are Safe? 10.3.6 Do Cosmetics Contain Hormone-disrupting Ingredients? 10.4 What Is the Difference Between Natural and Synthetic Ingredients? 10.5 Do Cosmetics Pollute the Oceans? 10.5.1 Do Cosmetics Contain Plastic Microbeads? 10.5.2 Are Cosmetics a Cause of Microplastics? 10.5.3 Why Is Plastic Packaging So Often Used to Package Cosmetics? 10.5.4 Are Sunscreens Damaging to Coral? 10.6 Why Are Cosmetics So Important? 10.7 Having Confidence in Cosmetic Products References Appendix 1 Career Opportunities in the Field of Cosmetic Science Subject Index Reviews